Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
⤢ 3D
Epinephrine (adrenaline) is a catecholamine that acts as both hormone and neurotransmitter, driving the acute "fight-or-flight" response. Released from the adrenal medulla, it raises heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose and redirects blood flow to muscles. In the brain and sympathetic nervous system it heightens arousal and vigilance during stress and emergencies.
Too little may be associated with
Reduced stress response
Too much may be associated with
Anxiety, palpitations, hypertension
Informational only — not medical advice.
Stimuli that influence it
Functions
Substances
- Tyrosine (↑)
Books (4)
Podcasts
- Huberman Lab
Stanford neuroscientist Andrew Huberman on physiology, stress, sleep, and self-regulation.
Research (33)
- Sleep disturbance triggers aberrant activation of vagus circuitry and induces intestinal stem cell dysfunction Li et al. (2026) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Noradrenergic and cholinergic innervation of the normal human heart and changes associated with cardiomyopathy Hanna et al. (2026) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Biochemistry, Tyramine Burns et al. (2026) PubMed ↗
- Physiology, Catecholamines Khalil et al. (2026) PubMed ↗
- Plasma levels of adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, and cortisol in sarcopenia: comparison with non-sarcopenic individuals and the impact of resistance exercise and nutrition interventions Chang et al. (2025) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- STING orchestrates the neuronal inflammatory stress response in multiple sclerosis Woo et al. (2024) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Insights and progress on the biosynthesis, metabolism, and physiological functions of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): a review Zhang et al. (2024) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Physical exercise induces mental flow related to catecholamine levels in noncompetitive, but not competitive conditions in men Karsai et al. (2023) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Understanding the Connection between Gut Homeostasis and Psychological Stress Wang et al. (2023) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- β-adrenoreceptor-triggered PKA activation negatively regulates the innate antiviral response Guo et al. (2023) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Hormonal and metabolic responses of older adults to resistance training in normobaric hypoxia Allsopp et al. (2022) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Dopamine-Secreting Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma Miyamoto et al. (2021) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Vasopressor and Inotrope Therapy in Cardiac Critical Care Jentzer et al. (2021) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Revisiting the role of neurotransmitters in epilepsy: An updated review Angelopoulou et al. (2021) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗
- Drug-Drug Interactions (DDIs) in Psychiatric Practice, Part 6: Pharmacodynamic Considerations Preskorn (2019) Full text ↗ PubMed ↗